Paviland Cave - The Red Lady Burial of Wales

Paviland Cave - The Red Lady Burial of Wales Definition: Paviland Cave, also known as Goats Hole Cave, is a rockshelter on the Gower peninsula of South Wales in Great Britain that was occupied for different periods and in different intensities from the Early Upper Paleolithic through Final Paleolithic, approximately 35,000 to 20,000 years ago. It is considered the oldest Upper Paleolithic site in Great Britain (called British Aurignacian in some circles), and it is believed to represent an inmigration of early modern humans from mainland Europe, and currently associated with the Gravettian period. The Red Lady It must be said that the reputation of Goats Hole Cave has suffered somewhat because it was discovered before the science of archaeology had a strong foothold in antiquarian research. No stratigraphy was apparent to its excavators; and no spatial data was collected during the excavations. As a result, its discovery nearly 200 years ago has left a fairly muddled trail of theories and suppositions about the age of the site, a trail only clarified the first decade of the 21st century. In 1823, the partial skeleton of a person was discovered within the cave, buried with mammoth (extinct elephant) ivory rods, ivory rings and perforated periwinkle shells. All of these items were heavily stained with red ochre. At the head of the skeleton was a mammoth skull, complete with both tusks; and marker stones were placed nearby. The excavator William Buckland interpreted this skeleton as a Roman-period prostitute or witch, and accordingly, the individual was named the Red Lady. Later investigations have established that this person was a young adult male, not a female. Dates on the human bones and charred animal remains were in debatethe human bones and associated charred bone returned quite different datesuntil the 21st century. Aldhouse-Green (1998) argued that this occupation should be considered Gravettian of the Upper Paleolithic, based on similarities of the tools from sites elsewhere in Europe. These tools included flint leaf points and ivory rods, both common in Upper Paleolithic sites. Chronology Aurignacian In 2008, re-dating and comparison with other sites with similar stone and bone tools indicated to researchers that the Red Lady was buried some ~29,600 radiocarbon years ago (RCYBP), or about 34,000-33,300 calibrated years before the present (cal BP). This date is based on a radiocarbon date from an associated charred bone, backed up by similar aged tools elsewhere, and has been accepted by the scholarly community, and that date would be considered Aurignacian. The tools within Goats Hole Cave are considered late Aurignacian or Early Gravettian in appearance. Thus, scholars believe that Paviland represents an early colonization of the now-submerged Channel River valley during or just before the Greenland interstadial, a brief warming period about 33,000 years ago. Archaeological Studies Paviland Cave was first excavated in the early 1820s, and again in the early 20th century by WJ Sollas. The significance of Paviland is clear, when the list of excavators is obtained, including Dorothy Garrod in the 1920s, and JB Campbell and RM Jacobi in the 1970s. Re-investigations of the previous excavations were conducted by Stephen Aldhouse-Green at the University of Wales, Newport in the late 1990s, and again in the 2010s by Rob Dinnis at the British Museum. Sources This glossary entry is a part of the About.com guide to the Upper Paleolithic and the Dictionary of Archaeology. Aldhouse-Green S. 1998. Paviland Cave: Contextualizing the Red Lady. Antiquity 72(278):756-772. Dinnis R. 2008. On the technology of Late Aurignacian burin and scraper production, and the importance of the Paviland lithic assemblage and the Paviland burin. Lithics: The Journal of the Lithic Studies Society 29:18-35. Dinnis R. 2012. The archaeology of Britains first modern humans. Antiquity 86(333):627-641. Jacobi RM, and Higham TFG. 2008. The â€Å"Red Lady† ages gracefully: new ultrafiltration AMS determinations from Paviland. Journal of Human Evolution 55(5):898-907. Jacobi RM, Higham TFG, Haesaerts P, Jadin I, and Basel LS. 2010. Radiocarbon chronology for the Early Gravettian of northern Europe: new AMS determinations for Maisià ¨res-Canal, Belgium. Antiquity 84(323):26-40. Also Known As: Goats Hole Cave

Data Protection Regulation and control Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

Data Protection Regulation and control - Essay Example The universal declaration of human rights article12 states that: "there should be no interference with a person, family, home etc. or attacks upon their reputation" (Lloyd1998.58-60). The company has the duty of finding out the stipulated rules and regulation in the various legislative acts that address data protection. The law for example, requires the firm to get registered and get authorization from information commissioner (Carey, 1998.16-31). It is the responsibility of the company to develop policies and procedures that protect customer information using the knowledge so gained. The company then needs to institute the office of a data controller who is the person who, either alone or with others, directs the content and use of personal data (ILO, 1997.14-67). The company, through the office of the data controller has the responsibility of ensuring that personal information collected from client is relevant and secure and its uses in an appropriate manner (Hornberger, 2001.21-49). The company has a duty to keep updating themselves on amendments on data protection acts inorder to maintain relevant policies. It is thus their responsibility to keep in touch with the concerned regulatory bodies or any the media houses that highlight such changes or amendments. To improve this privacy and security, the company should prohibit the use of social security numbers or social insurance numbers as

Brand personality Literature review Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2000 words

Brand personality - Literature review Example Brands may be also said as business organization; at the same time, it helps in generating revenue, thus brands can be regarded as investment. In return, brands need to payback certain amount of revenue to their owner. Brand Personality is a collection of human features connected with a specific brand (Aaker & Biel, 1993). A brand can easily come across the notice of the customer if the advertisement is done with known celebrities or with the help of certain well known figures of historic moment. Brand personality is often questionable in terms of scale and at times is answerable in theoretical conception based on nature. Once brands are developed, they shelter the company under the umbrella with numerous numbers of products, which can provide it incredible strategic advantage and financial gains. In the present market scenario, a major role is played by brand. Over a long period of time, brands have significantly controlled the performances of the marketers and have influenced the p romises and the benefits provided by the brand to their consumers for that particular product (Hanasali & et. al., 2005). The paper intends to discuss branding and Aaker's brand personality with its explanation along with its criticism. Meaning of Branding A brand is fundamental by nature or is represented by its offerings and what it delivers. Brand motivates its consumers by the offerings provided by a particular company. Brands establish themselves in the market over a period of time by the means of conveying a company’s message to their customers through consistent advertisements and by following suggestions provided by friends, colleagues, by family members along with ensuring communication between its representatives and its company members. The brands are often protected from others by securing service maker or trademark by a certified agency, generally by government agency (Herford & et. al., 2007). The public knowledge about the companies brand is often set as a fact or of companies’ evaluations. At times, corporations undergo market research to become aware about the public brand recognition, at the same time to know about the behaviour of the customers towards the brand. When the companies are building a brand or working upon a brand, at times they take the help of search engine and WebPages having the outline of the work details before establishing the successful brand. Organising the fields name and the brand name is an extremely vital part of searching and keeping in touch with the clients and the visitors consequently branding the new company (Asperin, 2007). Brand name helps in the identification of the image and idea of that particular service or product, which in return results in the clients to be drawn towards the new brand in the market. Branding is a procedure of building companies’ asset, which helps to build goodwill in the market. If a company is able to establish a stellar reputation among the competitors then bran ding procedure can help in creating an image in the market. It motivates a company to meet its expectations by bringing in more innovative service or product and to surpass its expectations in the competitive market scenario. In today’s dynamic marketplace, brands have large marketing landscape, where the ground of spreading the message and introducing the product is largely performed through the use

Analyse and critically assess Baumol's model of innovationbased of Essay

Analyse and critically assess Baumol's model of innovationbased of growth - Essay Example For this reason he states that competition and the free market economy has played a major role in encouraging innovation by enterprises in the economy which has resulted into economic growth. According to Baumol (2002) capitalism is unique in its innovation characteristic and that the product of the capitalist society is economic growth. he notes that past economies such as medieval China were characterized by innovative and invention ideas but due to the economic system and characteristics innovation did not result in economic growth, the difference between these economies is that the modern economy is characterized by free competition and also that innovation is used as a competition tool in the market. Firms in the modern world have two competitive weapons and they include prices and innovation, innovation in the modern world is the prime weapon and has become mandatory in the modern firms. The firm that do not undertake innovation face closure in the modern world, therefore they compete to outperform their competitor in innovative ideas in the market other than the use of price, this form of competition results into new and better products and processes that benefits consumers. Firms result in frequent innovation as a competitive strategy and this innovation results into further innovation, innovation therefore becomes a routinised process. ... He also notes that the Capitalist economy is driven by profit motives, these motives makes firms to perform tasks efficiently and effectively, and that the invisible hand controls firms in the market from deriving abnormal profits forcing a firms to provide better products in the market than its rivals. Baumol (2002) however states that economic growth does not solve other problems the society may face such as inequality and this is because economic growth only solves problems that depend on it. On large and small entrepreneurs he noted that small and independent innovators provide a significantly startling result, he notes that a recent study by the small business association the frequency of citation of small firm patents is more likely to be among the first top one percent, Some of the products by independent and small firm innovation include the airplane, pace maker and the helicopter. This trend is expected to exist in future and that independent inventors over the years open up large firms that perform routine innovation. Large firms on the other hand also contribute to innovation. Large firms specialize in product improvement, provision of user friendly products and finding new consumers for their products. These large firms are characterized by bureaucratic controls that ensure that innovation processes are incremental and predictable, for this reason these control restrict imaginative ideas which may result into disaster and that may also result to revolutionize into a new world. Conclusion: From the above analysis it is evident that Baumol analysis of economic growth advocates for the free market economy, the capitalist society promotes growth whereby it is

Attentional Control and Working Memory

Attentional Control and Working Memory Attentional control and working memory over top-down, bottom-up factors Complicated activities rely on attention to selectively focus on task-relevant stimuli while overlooking salient distractive stimuli. For instance, drivers need to able to attend to oncoming traffic while simultaneously ignoring distracting stimuli such as eating, looking after children, or hearing the bell of a cellphone receive a message. Most models pertaining to the selectivity of attention suggest that our attention is biased to either stimulus-based factors (bottom-up selection) and/or goal-driven factors (top-down selection) (Theeuwes, 2010). Physically salient properties of objects that draw attention involuntarily are bottom-up factors, in contrast, past knowledge, goals, and future plans are top-down factors that automatically guide our attention (Katsuki Constantinidis, 2014). Attentional control researchers have continuously argued whether goal-driven factors or stimulus-based factors have a larger influence on attentional control. However, this assumes that attention co ntrol involves a dichotomous selection between stimulus-based factors and goal-driven factors. This is an assumption that is incorrect and does not consider attentional control research that exists beyond this dichotomic viewpoint (Vecera et al, 2014). Past theories of attention focusing on the biases between goal-driven (top-down) and physically salient stimuli (bottom-up) do not take into consideration findings that persist outside of these factors, such as, the influence of experience with distractors on future search tasks. Attentional control, using working memory of distractor experience and strong biases, is a more effective posit than the dichotomic bias between goal-driven factors and physically salient factors. Although the dichotomy of bottom-up and top-down does not account for selection biases that are not goal-related nor physically salient, it still provides a highly acceptable theory of attentional control. The first visual sweep is completely driven by stimuli (Theeuwes, 2010). Theeuwes (2010) claims that the most physically salient item drives attention during the first visual scan, it is not until later in time that visual selection is biased in a top-down manner. This top-down manner involves feedback processing and voluntary control based on willful plans and current goals. Theeuwes (1992) found that when looking for a circle among diamonds of all the same color, the response time was a lot slower when one of the diamonds was red. Their study demonstrated that salience has an impact on visual attentional control. Goal driven selection matches targets that most fit the observers goal template. For example, when at the supermarket, if the goal is to buy a red apple, the observer wi ll prioritize red items. Overall, the bottom-up and top-down model offers a much more simplistic approach to attention and is one that can be easily accepted due to its lack of complexity in reasoning. For instance, it is easy to comprehend that items that pop out are more likely to grab attention, as well as, current selection goals of the on looker. However, this theory suggests that irrelevant items are not learned and cannot be used in future search tasks. Both stimulus-based and goal-driven factors influence attentional control, however, researchers have recently started to notice the impact experience has on the selective nature of attention (Awh et al., 2012). For example, participants point out noticeable, color targets quickly if the target-color is repeated throughout subsequent trials (Maljkovic Nakayama, 1994). They found that even when observers have a strong stimulus-based bias towards the target, experience strengthens this bias. Accordingly, priming of pop out of targets in repeated trials demonstrates the ability of experience to change the efficiency and overall efficacy of attentional control (Lee, Mozer, Vecera, 2009). These findings further support the idea that experience can influence attentional control, an idea that is not supported by bottom-up and top-down theories. In contrast to research done in favor of bottom-up, top-down posits, one memory system that falls in favor of experience and attentional control is priming of pop out (PoP). PoP occurs when individuals can point out a target faster if the essential feature of that target is constant in subsequent trials (Maljkovic Nakayama, 1994). In their study, they had their participants look for a colored diamond and had them identify if the diamond had a feature missing from either side. They found that PoP helped individuals and increased their response times. Their findings suggest that by continually showing a targets defining features, it reinforces the selective bias towards that targets features. In a similar vein, Tulving and Schacter (1990) found that representation systems based on perception allow for perceptual priming to occur. These representation system process new information in short-term memory. This short-term memory hastens the processing of similar information in future task s. Thus, when the visual information sweep frequently encounters similar items to process, these items are processed in a faster manner because short-term memory already has a memory trace of that item. Priming of pop out further demonstrates how learned experience with physically salient items benefits subsequent search tasks. It demonstrates that passive priming can provoke strong selection biases that have nothing to do with goal-driven selection. The bottom-up, top-down attentional control model does not consider these findings. Large amounts of research on attentional selection cannot be accounted for by the tendency to group attentional control in either top-down or bottom-up factors (Awh et al., 2012), for example, memory. There are two types of memory that have different roles and first need to be distinguished. Visual working memory depictions are different from visual long-term memories (VLTM). Visual working memory depictions are held for a limited amount of time, while visual long-term depictions continue throughout time (Luck, 2008). The constant maintenance of information limits the length of time for which visual working memory (VWM) depictions are upheld in memory. Lastly, VWM can only hold three to four items at the same time, while VLTM depictions are not bounded to a specific amount of objects (Brady et al., 2008). Although VWM is important in memory, VWM, in regards to attentional control, is specifically important for building experience with distractor rejections, but, is not useful for fut ure use. Visual long term memory (VLTM) uses information (information that is no longer relevant to the task) encoded in the past to guide attention (Fan Turk-Browne, 2016). In their first experiment, Fan and Turk-Browne (2016) found that VLTM for the associated location of a target guided spatial attention during visual search for the target, even when this location was not relevant to the task. Their second experiment expanded on these findings by discovering that VLTM for the associated color of a target influenced attentional capture in a different task. Memories can guide attention toward associated features, even when these features were encoded incidentally and were never relevant to any task (Fan Turk-Browne, 2016). An items features are automatically retrieved from long-term memory based on environmental cues encoded into working memory. These working memory representations bias selection toward items perceived in the world that match with features in memory through react ivation. An example of this would be shopping at a supermarket frequently gone to. When shopping at the local supermarket looking for your favorite cereal, for example, you are less likely to be distracted by other grocery items because you know where youre going and do not have to scan the visual area as often as opposed to it being the first time at that specific store. Observers find targets more easily when knowledge is given beforehand concerning the physical features of the target, like location, identity, and color (Moher Egeth, 2012). This is a process known as visual cueing. Observers find targets more easily, when they are told beforehand, not to look at certain irrelevant areas of the display areas that will not have any targets pop up. For example, an individual is more often than not to find their friend at a mall if told that their friend will be wearing a bright yellow shirt. In the same manner, Woodman and Luck (2007) found that targets were located faster if distractor items that were in the color that had to be ignored were present versus the distractors not being there at all. They concluded that participants used a template for rejection wherein items that match any beforehand features that had to be ignored, could be avoided during search, thus, items possessing the feature that had to be ignored were quickly rejected, ultimatel y, minimizing the size of the search. Knowing what not to look for reduces the number of items needed to be scanned, inadvertently reducing the time it takes to search through items. Further extending current research on the theory that individuals can use cues to bias attention away from salient distractors, individuals need experience with distractors before the distractors can actually be ignored (Cunningham Egeth, 2016). Experience with irrelevant stimuli can improve search in tasks. Learning to ignore features can result in a benefit in search tasks because time spent learning about these features, that need to be ignored, enhances its ability to be used by individuals in future search tasks (Cunningham Egeth, 2016). Results from their experiment found that within the same task, observers only benefited from cues that were consistent and not by cues that changed trial by trial. This demonstrates that cues can only be beneficial in search tasks if the cues are repeatedly shown ; developing a more concrete trace in long term memory in which participants can use. The mentioned studies establish that memory is an important part of the attentional selection process. The concept of memory cannot be put into a category that is either stimulus-driven or goal-driven, but rather makes its own valid case in the plethora of selection phenomena. Biased competition proposes that attentional control mechanisms occur when several neuronal axons land in the same receptive vicinity (Desimone Duncan, 1995). They found that when several stimuli fall into one receptive field, a neuron has multiple choices as to which of these stimuli it should respond to; this is quite an uncertain process. However, attentional mechanisms solve this uncertainty through two processes: attention is biased towards matching target objects with templates held in VWM. And, attention is biased towards items that are physically salient. Objects that are held in VWM are preferred over objects that are not because cells that have the objects features show higher rates of activity (Miller Desimone, 1994). Features of items in the external world are represented by these cells held in VWM, thus, the higher the activation rate, the more probable these neurons are to reach supra-threshold and fire an action potential when an external item matches that of the ite m in working memory. In support of experience and attentional control, biased competition reveals that past experience directs learning towards novel characteristics in settings and plays an important role forming the long-term memory system (Hutchinson et al., 2016). Frequent studies of attention have looked at task-related goals and its effect on memory encoding, but not much research has investigated the role of memory guiding itself during selection (Awh et al., 2012). According to Hutchinson et al. (2016), memory allows for the brain to differentiate between old information (information in which the individual has already encountered) and new information that will give the best representation of the surroundings. Thus, in circumstances that involve both the presence of old and new information, old information will affect how new information is processed and interpreted. Biased competition further supports that experience has an effect on what enters the memory system, which then, subsequently affect s the attentional systems use of templates in the prioritization of certain items. Cases that cannot be explained by the traditional dichotomy of attentional control can be further expanded by reward control. Although attentional selection can be voluntary, in the case of goal-driven tasks, subsequent selection can be provoked be rewards. Hickey et al. (2010) had participants look for a diamond shape while also ignoring irrelevant color stimuli at the same time. Participants were given a low or a high monetary reward depending on whether they answered right. The researchers found that rewards could bias attentional selection to either the target or to the irrelevant stimuli trial after trial.ÂÂ   For instance, if the target color stayed the same on subsequent trials, participants had a fast response time after given a high monetary reward. However, when the distractor had the same color as the previous target, reaction times were slow after given a high monetary reward. This study suggests that monetary reward influenced attention towards the color that was gi ven the high reward, irrespective of whether the color was associated with the distractor or the target. Several studies have shown that attentional selection is biased towards monetary reward. These findings cannot be explained by the voluntary, top-down or the physically salient, bottom-up attentional control dichotomy. Monetary reward further demonstrates that the dichotomic posit of attentional control is one that is incomplete and that monetary reward only expands on the present findings related to selection phenomena. Rewards are one of the strong biases that have a significant influence on selective processes. When encountering physically noticeable distractors, the experiences built on these distractors allows individuals to focus in future search tasks. This finding reveals that experience with physically noticeable distractors, and not only target templates held in working memory, benefits the high functionality of attentional control. Like further posits of attentional controls dependence on experience, learning to reject irrelevant stimuli depends on visual long term memory. This is an acceptable finding to grasp because long term memory possesses the ability to direct attention to target items in the present and later on, and, away from distractors. This finding further validates that attentional control cannot be explained by purely using the dichotomy of goal-driven and physically-salient-driven efforts. Rather, attentional control is an active process founded on creating experience with specific objects. Consequently, attentional control is a skill that is increasingly sharpened a s we gain experience out in the world. By not having much experience, the skills used in controlling attention is rather basic and depends on the simple use of the physical noticeability of object features. However, as individuals experience increases with certain tasks, the skills involved in attentional control sharpens and focuses on specific features. Once our attention is focused on a specific set of features, top-down control of attention can operate more efficiently. The importance of attentional control can be further seen in everyday life, especially in the realm of mental health. Several findings have found that there is a high correlation between those who suffer with mental illnesses and levels of attentional control. Individuals who have Alzheimers disease, for example, have trouble maintaining goal-directedness (Coubard, et al., 2011). They found that Alzheimers disease affects the ability of switching attention, suppressing, and preparing attention for random events. Further, individuals who suffer from schizophrenia and attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) have a fast response time in tasks when levels of anxiety and depression are lessened (Sarter and Paolone, 2011). Emotional processing is an important of human interaction and communication. Low attentional control would hinder the ability to shift attention away from potentially threating information which would increase ones susceptibility of developing harmful psychological effects (Fergus et al., 2012). Post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD) is another mental illness that is also affected by attentional control. Individuals with PTSD and low attentional control show attentional avoidance (Schoorl et al., 2014). Attentional avoidance is the concept of biasing attention away from threatening situations. These threatening situations serve as triggers that remind individuals with PTSD of the traumatic events they have experienced. This cognitive avoidance can be dysfunctional becaus e individuals with PTSD do not face threatening stimuli head on and avoid it, which, deprive them of the chance to realize that the traumatic event will not occur again (Schoorl et al., 2014). This was only the case when post-traumatic stress disorder symptoms were high and attention control levels were low. Works Cited Awh, E., Belopolsky, A. V., Theeuwes, J. (2012). Top-down versus bottom-up attentional control: A failed theoretical dichotomy. Trends In Cognitive Sciences, 16(8), 437-443. doi:10.1016/j.tics.2012.06.010 Brady, T.F., Konkle, T., Alvarez, G.A., Oliva, A. (2008). Visual long-term memory has a massive storage capacity for object details. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 105(38), 14325-14329. doi: 10.1073/pnas.0803390105 Cunningham, C. A., Egeth, H. E. (2016). Taming the white bear: Initial costs and eventual benefits of distractor inhibition. Psychological Science, 27(4), 476-485. doi:10.1177/0956797615626564 Coubard, O. A., Ferrufino, L., Boura, M., Gripon, A., Renaud, M., Bherer, L. (2011). Attentional control in normal aging and Alzheimers disease. Neuropsychology, 25(3), 353-367. doi:10.1037/a0022058 Desimone, R., Duncan, J. (1995). Neural mechanisms of selective visual attention. Annual Reviews of Neuroscience, 18(1), 193-222. doi: 10.1146/annurev.ne.18.0030195.001205 Fan, J. E., Turk-Browne, N. B. (2016). Incidental biasing of attention from visual long-term memory. Journal Of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, And Cognition, 42(6), 970-977. doi:10.1037/xlm0000209 Fergus, T. A., Bardeen, J. R., Orcutt, H. K. (2012). Attentional control moderates the relationship between activation of the cognitive attentional syndrome and symptoms of psychopathology. Personality And Individual Differences, 53(3), 213-217. doi:10.1016/j.paid.2012.03.017 Hickey, C., Chelazzi, L., Theeuwes, J. (2010). Reward Changes Salience in Human Vision via the Anterior Cingulate. Journal of Neuroscience, 30(33), 11096-11103. doi:10.1523/jneurosci.1026-10.2010 Hutchinson, J. B., Pak, S. S., Turk-Browne, N. B. (2016). Biased competition during long- term memory formation. Journal Of Cognitive Neuroscience, 28(1), 187-197. doi:10.1162/jocn_a_00889 Katsuki, F., Constantinidis, C. (2014). Bottom-up and top-down attention: Different processes and overlapping neural systems. The Neuroscientist, 20(5), 509-521. doi:10.1177/1073858413514136 Lee, H., Mozer, M.C., Vecera, S.P. (2009). Mechanisms of priming of pop-out: Stored representations or feature-gain modulations? Attention, Perception, Psychophysics, 71(5), 1059-1071. doi: 10.3758/APP.71.5.1059 Luck, S.J. (2008). Visual short-term memory. In S.J. Luck A. Hollingworth (Eds.), Visual Memory (pp. 43-85). New York: Oxford University Press. Maljkovic, V., Nakayama, K. (1994). Priming of pop-out: I. Role of features. Memory Cognition, 22(6), 657-72. doi: 10.3758/BF03209251 Miller, E.K., Desimone, R. (1994). Parallel neuronal mechanisms for short-term memory. Science, 263((5146), 520-522. doi: 10.1126/science.8290960 Moher, J., Egeth, H.E. (2012). The ignoring paradox: Cueing distractor features leads first to selection, then to inhibition of to-be-ignored items. Attention, Perception, Psychophysics, 74(8), 1590-1605. doi: 10.3758/s13414-012-0358-0 Sarter, M., Paolone, G. (2011). Deficits in attentional control: Cholinergic mechanisms and circuitry-based treatment approaches. Behavioral Neuroscience, 125(6), 825-835. doi:10.1037/a0026227 Schoorl, M., Putman, P., Van Der Werff, S., Van Der Does, A. W. (2014). Attentional bias and attentional control in posttraumatic stress disorder. Journal Of Anxiety Disorders, 28(2), 203-210. doi:10.1016/j.janxdis.2013.10.001 Theeuwes, J. (1992). Perceptual selectivity for color and form. Perception Psychophysics, 51(6), 599-606. doi:10.3758/BF03211656 Theeuwes, J. (2010). Top-down and bottom-up control of visual selection. Acta Psychologica, 135(2), 77-99. doi:10.1016/j.actpsy.2010.02.006 Tulving, E., Schacter, D.L. (1990). Priming and human memory systems. Science, 247(4940), 301-306. doi: 10.1126/science.2296719 Vecera, S. P., Cosman, J. D., Vatterott, D. B., Roper, Z. J. (2014). The control of visual attention: Toward a unified account. In B. H. Ross, B. H. Ross (Eds.) , The psychology of learning and motivation, Vol. 60 (pp. 303-347). San Diego, CA, US: Elsevier Academic Press. Vogel, E.K., Woodman, G.F., Luck, S.J. (2006). The time course of consolidation in visual working memory. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Human Perception and Performance,32(6), 1436-1451. doi: 10.1037/0096-1523.32.6.1436

Women in Art Essay -- Arts Females Gender Artistic Painting Essays

Women in Art Throughout history many artistic works have been deemed "great" and many individuals have been labeled "masters" of the discipline. The question of who creates art and how is it to be classified as great or greater than another has commonly been addressed by scholars and historians. The last quarter of the 20th century has reexamined these questions based on the assertions that no women artists have ever created or been appreciated to the level of "greatness" that perpetually befalls their male counterparts. The position that society has institutionalized on women as unable to be anything but subordinate and unexpressive is a major contributor to this claim. Giving a brief history of gender discrimination in the art field, examining different theories in regard to why women have been excluded from art history throughout the ages, and finally, discussing the contributions and progress that women artists and historians have achieved in the past two decades, will help to better under stand the complexity and significance of women artists. The early years of the 1990's mark the 20th anniversary of the women's movement in art. The exact date of the movement can not be ascertained due to the fact that there was such an immense number of things happening for the Women's Liberation movement at that time. Nevertheless, the achievements of the 1970's women's art movement were enormous and it is one of the most influential movements of that decade. Twenty years later, the struggle for representation in the arts continues. In 1990, a U.S. study was conducted on Gender Discrimination in the Artfield. The results are as follows: 50.7% of all visual artists are female and women hold 53.1% of the degrees in art,... ...Feminist Art. Harry N. Abrams, Inc, 1994. Chadwick, Whitney. Women, Art, and Society (revised edition). Thames and Hudson Inc., 1996. Freud, Sigmund. "Femininity." Feminist Frameworks. Ed. Jaggar and Rothenberd. McGraw-Hill, 1978. 91-98. Morse, Marcia. "Feminist Aesthetics and the Spectrum of Gender." Philosophy East & West 42(April 1992) 287-289. Nochlin, Linda. "Why Have There Been No Great Women Artists?" (1971). In Women, Art, and Power, and Other Essays. Harper & Row, 1988. Portwood, Pamela. "Feminist Views; Schapiro helps female artists shed their cloaks of anonymity." The Arizona Daily Star. 19 Feb, 1999. Starlight 6E. Strawter, Lisa Marie. "Facts About Women in the Arts: Women Artists Archive" [Online] Available. http://libweb.sonoma.edu/special/waa/, (accessed April 19, 1999).

How do RC Sheriff and Susan Hill explore the loss of youthfulness and innocence during war in Journeys End and Strange Meeting?

The frontline battlefront and home line homefront of war held opposing attitudes especially regarding the effect on the soldiers' emotions. With propaganda and patriotism encouraging so many men to enlist, they entered the trench life naà ¯Ã‚ ¿Ã‚ ½ve and unprepared for how war was going to change their lives. The families who were lucky enough to have their loved ones return home, had to welcome changed men. They left their homes as young boys proud to serve their country but returned with the emotional turmoil of dealing with the consequences of their experiences. RC Sherriff and Susan Hill both use specific treatments in their development of their central characters to build upon the theme of loss of youthfulness and innocence. In Journey's End, Stanhope is evidence of the transformation that men went through whilst at war. A once spirited and eager young man, he now cannot serve without being intoxicated with alcohol. Loss of youth is truly evident in this character. He will continue to battle with the addiction of drink, in order to cope with the horrific sights suffered, whilst serving. Although Journey's End is only based over four days, 18 March 1918 to 21 March 1918, in the trenches, Stanhope fluctuates between his unstable and drunken state as he must continue with his duties. As he is not a new officer, we, as the reader, only journey with him on his unstable side, which is made evident, when he loses control in act one, â€Å"all of a sudden he jumped up and knocked all the glasses off the table.† (WE don't see this – what is the effect of having it reported?) His states of emotions become truly evident when Raleigh joins his battalion. A â€Å"keen† schoolboy, full of false expectations, who knows Stanhope o a personal level through his sister who is Stanhope's girlfriend. Raleigh's arrival truly shows Stanhope's vulnerability and insecurity. Whilst discussing Raleigh's arrival with a fellow officer , Osborne, Stanhope insists on censoring Raleigh's letters to ensure he doesn't reveal Stanhope's new dependency on alcohol. â€Å"You know he'll write and tell her I reek of whisky all day.† Stanhope resents Raleigh's arrival and worries that he will become aware of the devastating effects brought on him through war. Raleigh admires Stanhope for his devotion to duty, his service and his hero-worship and naivety becomes evident when he reveals he thought it was coincidence which brought him to Stanhope's battalion, â€Å"I was frightfully keen to get into Dennis's regiment. I thought, perhaps, with a bit of luck I might get to the same battalion.† It soon becomes evident that Stanhope does not appreciate Raleigh's devotion and admiration , when he overreacts, â€Å"Stanhope clutches Raleigh's wrist and tears the letter from his hand.† Raleigh is a reminder of who Stanhope used to be, when he joined, and Stanhope resents him for his immature expectations of life at the Front.He believes Raleigh needs to grow up and rid himself of his false expectations, like thousands of other schoolboys who are forced to abandon their youth and grow up into men, if they are to survive. This stage indicates a turning point in what Raleigh is going to experience in his brief and tragic time at the Fron t.. Susan Hill uses Strange Meeting as a journey not only of service to the war but of a friendship which grows during each chapter. Barton and Hilliard, who have met from different family backgrounds, come together to support each other as a team. However, they had to engage each others' personalities in order to gain an understanding of one another; this has led them to growing up quickly. Barton, who is a calm, open and friendly young man , is transformed emotionally from child to father figure to Hilliard. Hilliard is changed by Barton, enabling him to open up and express himself personally to someone. Hilliard has been at the Front before and he represents experience because of this. However, Barton is the one who stabilises and prepared Hilliard for what he will experience and how to share the experience with others, showing support. These are two young boys, taking on large commitments to serve their country. YOU MUST USE QUOTATIONS TO SUBSTANTIATE WHAT YOU SAY The stresses of these commitments begin to have their effects. A visible change of Barton is evident, which is a key turning point in the novel. He becomes the same as all the other soldiers, â€Å"his eyes had taken on the common look of shock and misery†¦the texture of his flesh was altered, grained and worn.† All due to the feeling of guilt and responsibility for a fellow soldier, Harris' death. Each and every soldier went through these emotions when they lost their friends. Their innocence is lost as they have to experience bereavement daily and independently but are expected to continue to fight. When Barton last spoke to Hilliard he said, â€Å"you must never worry about me again.† These are not words which you would expect someone so young to say. Barton no longer values his life. Although this comment does not reflect his age it does in fact show a maturity that he understands the inevitability of death. Susan Hill portrays a loss of youthfulness through new attitudes gained from experiences at war. The young men had no choice but to grow up. Raleigh also is seen to have matured, which is expected of him. Once a schoolboy who spoke of ‘rugger,' is now not afraid to stand up to Stanhope, â€Å"facing him squarely†, he has gained confidence from the war. However, his service abruptly ends, after three days, when he is killed. Realistically, it is impossible to mature over this short period of time, but war is not a realistic lifestyle to be living in. Therefore, Sherriff has managed to develop the character of Raleigh through his journey at war and the people he has journeyed with. Journey's End and Strange Meeting both hold strong dependency on their characters to ensure the reader journeys with them personally. By using characterisation it is easier for the reader to connect with the changed and emotions that the characters go through. Both authors, Hill and Sherriff, use similar characters, for example Stanhope and Hilliard are used to represent how the experienced soldiers dealt with war, as they have both served before. Sherriff particularly references to Stanhope's new dependency. Alcohol is his lever of pain and the only way he seems to gain authority over himself emotionally although physically it is doing the opposite of this. He represents a broken man, who should be becoming personally dependant and thinking of his future with his girlfriend but instead breaks down and gives in to alcohol daily. Loss of innocence and youthfulness are truly represented through characterisation. Alcohol dependency is how Sherriff represents change, compared to Hill's use of characterisation within a journey. Hilliard has returned to war after taking leave due to injury. He deals with war by detaching himself mentally from his actions. Hill introduces Barton into Hilliard's life. By having contradictory characters together in a pressurised environment, Hill takes the read through the bond they share. Therefore, the changes of characters personalities become more evident and the loss of youthfulness and innocence are easier to recognise. In conclusion, propaganda encouraged the young to enlist, with families and friends pressurising those who did not. They were filled with false expectations and were naà ¯Ã‚ ¿Ã‚ ½ve to the effects of war to the lives, if they were to return. As explored, many young men left their families, never to return, giving their lives to the glorification of war. The vulnerability of their youth was soon crushed by the true realities of war and a whole generation was wiped out, leaving many wives widows, at such young ages. Sherriff and Hill, use the frontline perspective of war to express the changes men went through due to the circumstances of their daily routines. Characterisation through dependency and journeys are used to express the characters emotions. Especially for Journey's End, a small period of their lives serving has changed so many people's lives at the time and still to this day.